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Star-Nosed MoleCondylura cristata

Every figure, record and mechanism on the Star-Nosed Mole profile was written from a source, and this is the working table behind it: 53 claims checked word for word against these sources. The left column is what the page says. The right column is the source's own words, copied, not paraphrased; a ... marks a cut and[brackets] an insertion. Open any source and check it yourself.

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Source
01

Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan

Condylura cristata (star-nosed mole). Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan.

The page saysA semi-aquatic mole
The source saysUnlike other North American moles, C. cristata is semiaquatic
The page saystwenty-two fleshy sensory tentacles
The source saysringed by a unique 'star' of 22 pink, fleshy tentacles
The page saysMarshes, peatlands, wet meadows, poorly drained forest and the banks of streams, lakes and ponds across eastern North America
The source saysCondylura cristata is native to eastern North America ... prefers areas of poor drainage, including both coniferous and deciduous forests, clearings, wet meadows, marshes and peatlands. Condylura cristata also inhabits the banks of streams, lakes and ponds
The page saysWorms including leeches, aquatic insect larvae, crustaceans, mollusks and small fish
The source saysAbout half of its diet consists of worms (Annelida), and 80% of these are aquatic species such as leeches. Aquatic insects make up another 30% of its diet, including the larvae of caddisflies
The page sayscrustaceans, mollusks and small fish
The source sayswill also take occasional terrestrial insects, aquatic crustaceans, mollusks and small fish
The page saysa stout, dark mole native to eastern North America
The source saysCondylura cristata is native to eastern North America ... Like other moles it has a stout, roughly cylindrical body ... The pelage is dark brown to black on the back and lighter brown underneath.
The page saysranging from Quebec and Newfoundland west to Manitoba and North Dakota, and south along the Appalachians and the Atlantic coast to Georgia
The source saysreaching about 55°N latitude in Québec and Newfoundland. The range extends from the Atlantic Ocean west to Manitoba and North Dakota and south to Ohio and Virginia. Condylura cristata is also found along the Atlantic coast south to Georgia as well as throughout the Appalachian mountains.
The page saysIt measures 175 to 205 millimetres from nose to tail-tip and weighs 35 to 75 grams
The source saysCondylura cristata ranges from 175 to 205 mm in total length and weighs between 35 and 75 g.
The page saysa scaly tail that swells to three or four times its normal diameter each winter
The source saysannulated, scaly and covered with coarse hair. During winter the tail swells 3 to 4 times its normal diameter.
The page saysBecause a female raises only one litter a year, biologists have speculated the species may live a relatively long 3 to 4 years in the wild for an animal its size
The source saysSince a female's reproductive effort is limited to only 1 litter per year, is is speculated that C. cristata may have a relatively long lifespan for a mammal of its size, perhaps 3 to 4 years.
The page saysIt favours marshes, peatlands, wet meadows and poorly drained forest, and lives along the banks of streams, lakes and ponds, venturing into the water for food
The source saysprefers areas of poor drainage, including both coniferous and deciduous forests, clearings, wet meadows, marshes and peatlands. Condylura cristata also inhabits the banks of streams, lakes and ponds, into which it ventures for food
The page saysIts diet is mostly invertebrate
The source saysCondylura cristata feeds primarily on invertebrates.
The page saysWorms make up about half of what it eats, 80 percent of them aquatic species such as leeches
The source saysAbout half of its diet consists of worms (Annelida), and 80% of these are aquatic species such as leeches.
The page saysaquatic insects such as caddisfly and midge larvae add another 30 percent
The source saysAquatic insects make up another 30% of its diet, including the larvae of caddisflies (Trichoptera), midges (Chironomidae)
The page saysIt also takes the occasional small fish, mollusk or crustacean
The source sayswill also take occasional terrestrial insects, aquatic crustaceans, mollusks and small fish
The page saysIt swims with alternating strokes of its front and hind feet in a zigzag motion
The source saysit swims underwater with alternate strokes of both front and hind feet, resulting in a characteristic zigzag motion
The page saysit stays active through winter, burrowing through snow and swimming beneath the ice of frozen ponds
The source saysCondylura cristata is active throughout the winter, burrowing through snow and even swimming under the ice of frozen ponds.
The page saysOwls and hawks hunt it from the air, foxes and weasels take it too
The source saysFrom the air, C. cristata is hunted by owls both large and small as well as by hawks during the day ... red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) ... long-tailed weasels (Mustela frenata)
The page saysthe semi-aquatic mink may hunt it underwater
The source saysAnother mustelid, the mink, is semiaquatic and may hunt Condylura cristata underwater.
The page saysbullfrogs and largemouth bass are known aquatic predators
The source saysOther known aquatic predators include the bullfrog and largemouth bass.
The page saysAround its nostrils sits a ring of twenty-two fleshy pink rays, eleven to a side
The source saysringed by a unique 'star' of 22 pink, fleshy tentacles. The star is bilaterally symmetrical with 11 appendages per side
The page sayseach ray is covered in tiny domes called Eimer's organs
The source saysEach of the 22 appendages that make up the star is completely covered with tiny papillae known as Eimer's organs.
The page saysTwo of the three kinds of touch receptor packed into each Eimer's organ also show up in the skin of other mammals; the third is unique to this species and is thought to let it identify objects by their microscopic texture
The source saysEach Eimer's organ contains 3 types of tactile receptors, 2 of which are found in the skin of other mammals. The third type is unique to the star-nosed mole and is thought to allow the mole to identify objects by their microscopic texture.
The page saysLess than a square centimetre of skin carries more than 25,000 Eimer's organs
The source saysThe star possesses over 25,000 Eimer's organs in a space less than 1 square cm, making it incredibly sensitive.
The page saysstar-nosed moles seemed drawn toward batteries placed underwater and toward the parts of prey giving off the strongest electrical activity
The source saysLaboratory tests have shown that C. cristata seems to be drawn to batteries placed underwater as well as to the areas of strongest electrical activity on prey items.
The page saysit says the ability has not been demonstrated conclusively
The source saysAlthough it has not been demonstrated conclusively, it is thought that the star may also be used to detect faint electrical signals from the star-nosed mole's aquatic prey.
The page saystags: subterranean
The source saysLike many other moles, C. cristata is fossorial, digging a network of tunnels through moist soil.

Source
02

SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Adirondack Ecological Center

Star-Nosed Mole. SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Adirondack Ecological Center.

The page sayswhen it serves as a fat store
The source saysduring the winter swollen in size, when it serves as a fat storage organ
The page saysdiving for about ten seconds at a time
The source saysdives that last about 10 seconds
The page saysAn alarmed mole can run short distances at 6.4 to 8 kilometres an hour
The source saysan alarmed star-nosed mole can run short distances at speeds of 6.4-8 km (4-5 mi) per hour

Source
03

AnAge: The Animal Ageing and Longevity Database, Human Ageing Genomic Resources

AnAge entry for Condylura cristata. AnAge: The Animal Ageing and Longevity Database, Human Ageing Genomic Resources.

The page saysthe record in captivity is 2.5 years
The source saysRecord longevity in captivity, however, is only 2.5 years
The page saysweightKg: 0.055
The source saysAdult weight 55.3 gNote: 55.3 g is 0.0553 kg, rounded to 0.055

Source
04

Cassola 2016

Cassola (2016). Condylura cristata. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T41458A115187740.

The page saysLeast Concern
The source saysIUCN Red List category: Least Concern (LC).

Source
05

Catania & Remple 2005

Catania & Remple (2005). Asymptotic prey profitability drives star-nosed moles to the foraging speed limit. Nature.

The page sayscan identify and eat a piece of prey in as little as 120 milliseconds
The source saysHere we report handling times as short as 120 ms (mean 227 ms) for moles identifying and eating prey.
The page saysA star-nosed mole can identify and eat a piece of prey in as little as 120 milliseconds, with a mean of 227 milliseconds
The source saysHere we report handling times as short as 120 ms (mean 227 ms) for moles identifying and eating prey.
The page says"Double takes" during prey identification suggest it has reached the speed limit for processing touch
The source says'Double takes' during prey identification suggest that star-nosed moles have reached the speed limit for processing tactile information.
The page saysa prey item's profitability, the energy gained divided by the time spent handling it, increases dramatically as handling time approaches zero
The source saysPrey profitability (energy gained divided by prey handling time) is an essential variable for estimating the optimal diet. Time constraints of capturing and consuming prey generally result in handling times ranging from minutes to seconds, yet profitability increases dramatically as handling time approaches zero
The page saysA 2005 study argued that the star-nosed mole's unusual anatomy and behaviour came from progressively stronger selection for speed, since each tiny gain in speed let it add smaller prey to its diet
The source saystiny increments in speed increase profitability markedly, allowing expanded diets of smaller prey). We provide evidence that the unusual anatomical and behavioural specializations characterizing star-nosed moles resulted from progressively stronger selection for speed, allowing the progressive addition of small prey to their dietNote: the year 2005 is the reference's own publication year; "since" paraphrases the abstract's "allowing"
The page saysa mole that can identify and eat prey in as little as 120 milliseconds
The source sayshandling times as short as 120 ms (mean 227 ms) for moles identifying and eating preyNote: vibe.reason: replaces an unsourced 'eight milliseconds' (wave 113 final pass)

Source
06

Catania 2006

Catania (2006). Underwater 'sniffing' by semi-aquatic mammals. Nature.

The page sayssniffing underwater with exhaled air bubbles
The source saysboth species exhale air bubbles onto objects or scent trails and then re-inspire the bubbles to carry the smell back through the nose
The page saysIt can even smell underwater by re-sniffing bubbles of its own exhaled air
The source saysboth species exhale air bubbles onto objects or scent trails and then re-inspire the bubbles to carry the smell back through the nose
The page saysA 2006 study described the same underwater sniffing in the semi-aquatic water shrew: while underwater, both species exhale air bubbles onto objects or scent trails, then breathe the bubbles back in
The source saysI describe a mechanism for underwater sniffing used by the semi-aquatic star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata) and water shrew (Sorex palustris). While underwater, both species exhale air bubbles onto objects or scent trails and then re-inspire the bubbles to carry the smell back through the nose.Note: the year 2006 is the reference's own publication year
The page saysThe study noted that mammals were widely held to be unable to smell underwater, since they cannot draw in air there
The source saysit is widely held that mammals cannot use olfaction underwater because it is impossible for them to inspire air (sniff) to convey odorants to the olfactory epithelium

Source
07

Catania 2011

Catania (2011). The sense of touch in the star-nosed mole: from mechanoreceptors to the brain. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.

The page saysThe Fastest Known Forager Among Mammals
The source saysStar-nosed moles are the fastest known foragers among mammals
The page saysit is the fastest known forager among mammals
The source saysStar-nosed moles are the fastest known foragers among mammals, able to identify and consume a small prey item in 120 ms.

Source
08

Catania 1999

Catania (1999). A nose that looks like a hand and acts like an eye: the unusual mechanosensory system of the star-nosed mole. Journal of Comparative Physiology A: Sensory, Neural, and Behavioral Physiology.

The page saysTwenty-Two Rays Devoted to Touch
The source saysThe star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata) has a snout surrounded by 22 fleshy and mobile appendages ... Rather, the star is devoted to the sense of touch
The page saysThe star is devoted to the sense of touch
The source saysRather, the star is devoted to the sense of touch

Source
09

Catania & Remple 2003

Catania & Remple (2003). Tactile Foveation in the Star-Nosed Mole. Brain, Behavior and Evolution.

The page saysEimer's organs on twenty-two nasal rays that touch new spots about thirteen times a second
The source saysthe star, which is just over a centimeter in diameter, was touched to different areas of the environment approximately 13 times per second
The page saysWhile foraging, the star touches a new spot about thirteen times a second
The source saysMole foraging behavior was very fast; the star, which is just over a centimeter in diameter, was touched to different areas of the environment approximately 13 times per second.
The page saysit makes rapid saccades, like an eye's, to bring its lowest pair of rays onto prey it has touched, at up to around 40 centimetres a second
The source saysA pair of appendages (the 11th pair on the ventral midline) acts as the tactile fovea ... star-nosed moles made rapid, saccadic movements of the star to investigate the contacted prey with the foveal appendages. The movements of the star were similar to visual saccades in other species. Maximum velocity of the star during saccades was approximately 40 cm/s

Source
10

Catania 2000

Catania (2000). Epidermal Sensory Organs of Moles, Shrew Moles, and Desmans: A Study of the Family Talpidae with Comments on the Function and Evolution of Eimer's Organ. Brain, Behavior and Evolution.

The page sayswhich nearly all other members of the mole family share
The source saysSmall domed mechanosensory organs called 'Eimer's organs' were present on the rhinarium of nearly all species of talpids
The page saysA 2000 study found Eimer's organs on nearly all species of mole, shrew-mole and desman, but not on shrews, which suggests the common ancestor of the mole family had them
The source saysThe epidermal sensory organs of members of the family Talpidae (moles, shrew-moles, and desmans) ... were present on the rhinarium of nearly all species of talpids, but not among the sister group of shrews (Soricidae) or other insectivore families. This suggests that the common ancestor to the talpids possessed Eimer's organs.Note: the year 2000 is the reference's own publication year
The page saysTwo mole species from the driest habitats showed none, and desmans carry tiny sensory hairs among their Eimer's organs that may sense water currents
The source saysTwo species of moles from the driest habitats did not exhibit Eimer's organs ... The semi-aquatic desmans uniquely possessed tiny sensory hairs interspersed with their Eimer's organs; these may act to sense water currents.

How the table was made: a writer drafted the profile from these sources and logged each claim with its quote, a reviewer with nothing but this table checked every sentence said no more than its quote, and a script confirmed each quote appears word for word in the source. The method is in the site'sAbout page.