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What the sources say

Southern StingrayHypanus americanus

Every figure, record and mechanism on the Southern Stingray profile was written from a source, and this is the working table behind it: 52 claims checked word for word against these sources. The left column is what the page says. The right column is the source's own words, copied, not paraphrased; a ... marks a cut and[brackets] an insertion. Open any source and check it yourself.

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Source
01

Carlson et al. 2020

Carlson et al. (2020). Hypanus americanus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020: e.T181244884A104123787.

The page saysNear Threatened
The source saysIUCN Red List category: Near Threatened (NT).Note: stats.conservationStatus and body; category read through GBIF's copy of the Red List (assessed 2019)

Source
02

Florida Museum of Natural History, Discover Fishes

Southern Stingray (Hypanus americanus). Florida Museum of Natural History, Discover Fishes.

The page saysIts raised head has spiracles that let it take in water while it lies on the seabed
The source saysThe head is elevated and contains spiracles that enable the ray to take in water dorsally while lying on the seabed.
The page saysThe disc is diamond-shaped
The source saysThe disc of H. americanus is diamond-shapedNote: body
The page saysabout 1.2 times as broad as it is long
The source saysThe disc is approximately 1.2 times as broad as it is long.
The page saysThe tail can be up to twice as long as the body
The source saysThe tail, measured from the cloaca to the tip, can reach lengths twice as long as the body measured from cloaca to the tip of snout.
The page sayswith 52 to 80 teeth on either side
The source saysThe spine is round, but slightly flattened dorsoventrally with 52-80 teeth on either side.
The page saysThe southern stingray is a non-aggressive animal, posing little threat to humans, but it uses its spine in defense when stepped on
The source saysThe southern stingray is a non-aggressive animal, posing little threat to humans. However, when stepped on, the ray will use its spine in defense.Note: blockquote and FAQ
The page saysthe Florida Museum notes that its average lifespan is poorly known
The source saysLittle is known about its average life span and growth rate.Note: FAQ 4
The page sayshave also been seen visiting cleaner wrasse cleaning stations, for periods of 1 to 26 minutes
The source saysH. americanus has been observed visiting cleaner wrasse cleaning stations for periods of time ranging from 1-26 minutes.
The page saysmost abundant near Florida and the Bahamas
The source saysIt is most abundant near Florida and the Bahamas.
The page saysLitters hold 2 to 10 pups, with an average of 4
The source sayslitter sizes range from 2-10 pups, with an average of 4 pups per litter
The page saysa gestation of 4 to 11 months
The source saysGestation takes 4-11 months
The page saysdescribes it as non-aggressive and of little threat to people
The source saysThe southern stingray is a non-aggressive animal, posing little threat to humans.Note: FAQ 3
The page sayswhen someone steps on one: the ray then defends itself with its spine
The source sayswhen stepped on, the ray will use its spine in defenseNote: FAQ 3
The page saysthe flattened fins that form its disc
The source saysThe flattened pectoral fins form a disc
The page saysthe Florida Museum says little is known about its average lifespan
The source saysLittle is known about its average life span and growth rate.

Source
03

FishBase

Hypanus americanus summary page. FishBase.

The page saysSandy bottoms, seagrass beds and lagoons
The source saysFound on sandy bottoms, seagrass beds, lagoons and the reef faceNote: stats.habitat
The page saysfrom New Jersey to southern Brazil
The source saysWestern Atlantic: New Jersey, USA and northern Gulf of Mexico to southern Brazil, including the AntillesNote: stats.habitat; range in body
The page saysMainly bivalves and worms, plus shrimps, crabs and small fishes
The source saysFeeds mainly on bivalves and worms and also takes shrimps, crabs and small fishesNote: stats.diet; body
The page saysThe oldest age FishBase reports is 28 years
The source saysmax. reported age: 28 yearsNote: FAQ 4
The page saysat depths from 0 to 53 m
The source saysdepth range 0 - 53 m
The page saysas assessed in 2019
The source saysNear Threatened (NT) (A2bd); Date assessed: 21 June 2019
The page saysIt eats mostly bivalves and worms, along with shrimps, crabs and small fishes
The source saysFeeds mainly on bivalves and worms and also takes shrimps, crabs and small fishes
The page saysa typical one is about 90 cm wide
The source sayscommon length : 90.0 cm WD male/unsexedNote: FAQ 1
The page saysthe biggest reach 200 cm
The source saysMax length : 200 cm WD male/unsexedNote: FAQ 1; 'biggest'/'heaviest' paraphrase FishBase's 'Max'/'max.'
The page saysThe heaviest on record in FishBase weighed 135.6 kg
The source saysmax. published weight: 135.6 kgNote: FAQ 1; preferred to the Florida Museum's 97 kg, which is from an older page; 'biggest'/'heaviest' paraphrase FishBase's 'Max'/'max.'
The page saysFishBase gives a maximum disc width of 200 cm
The source saysMax length : 200 cm WD male/unsexed
The page saysa common width of 90 cm
The source sayscommon length : 90.0 cm WD male/unsexed
The page saysits heaviest published weight is 135.6 kg
The source saysmax. published weight: 135.6 kgNote: Florida Museum and ADW give 97 kg; FishBase is the maintained page (Red List version 2025-2) and records a heavier published fish; 'biggest'/'heaviest' paraphrase FishBase's 'Max'/'max.'
The page saysfrom New Jersey and the northern Gulf of Mexico to southern Brazil, including the Antilles
The source saysWestern Atlantic: New Jersey, USA and northern Gulf of Mexico to southern Brazil, including the AntillesNote: body range
The page saysFishBase lists 28 years as the oldest reported age
The source saysmax. reported age: 28 years

Source
04

Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan

Dasyatis americana (kit). Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan.

The page saysA diamond-shaped digger that flaps its fins to uncover prey
The source saysexcavate their prey by flapping the pectoral fins and jetting water from the mouth to disturb the substrate and uncover their (usually) buried preyNote: tagline; 'usually' in the quote qualifies 'buried', not the flapping
The page saysand finds it by its electric field
The source saysallow them to sense electrical field produced by buried preyNote: tagline
The page saysThousands of electrical sensors on its underside detect the electric field of prey buried in the sand
The source saysThey also possess thousands of Ampullae of Lorenzini on their undersides, particularly concentrated around the head, which allow them to sense electrical field produced by buried preyNote: stats.superpower; body and FAQ
The page saysIt flaps its pectoral fins
The source saysexcavate their prey by flapping the pectoral fins and jetting water from the mouth to disturb the substrate and uncover their (usually) buried preyNote: 'usually' in the quote qualifies 'buried', not the flapping
The page saysIts eyes sit on top of its head and are likely used to spot predators rather than food
The source saysThe eyes of southern stingrays are not likely to be useful in sensing prey, being placed on top of the head. However, they are still rather large and well-developed and are likely used to sense predators
The page saysIn shallow water, double-crested cormorants dive in and swim behind it to feed on the snappers and grunts it disturbs
The source saysThe birds dive in and swim behind the stingrays to feed on snappers and grunts, though this is only possible in shallow waters.Note: 'though this is only possible in shallow waters' restored by the reviewer
The page saysGreat hammerhead sharks are a predator, and the shape of their heads helps them hold a stingray down
The source saysThe shape of this shark’s head enables it to hold down stingrays while feeding on them.
The page saysIt often hides from predators by burying itself in the sand
The source saysStingrays will often bury themselves in the sand to avoid detection by predators
The page saysjets water from its mouth to disturb the sand and uncover prey that is usually buried
The source saysexcavate their prey by flapping the pectoral fins and jetting water from the mouth to disturb the substrate and uncover their (usually) buried prey
The page saysthousands of ampullae of Lorenzini, sensors on its underside, concentrated around the head, that pick up the electric field of buried animals
The source saysThey also possess thousands of Ampullae of Lorenzini on their undersides, particularly concentrated around the head, which allow them to sense electrical field produced by buried prey
The page saysthousands of sensors called ampullae of Lorenzini on its underside
The source saysThey also possess thousands of Ampullae of Lorenzini on their undersides, particularly concentrated around the head, which allow them to sense electrical field produced by buried preyNote: FAQ 2
The page saysIt senses the electrical field that buried prey gives off
The source sayssense electrical field produced by buried preyNote: FAQ 2
The page saysSight is unlikely to help it find that prey
The source saysThe eyes of southern stingrays are not likely to be useful in sensing prey, being placed on top of the head.
The page saysit carries a sharp, venomous spine
The source sayscarries a sharp, serrated, venomous spine that is used in defense
The page saysThe southern stingray hunts by excavating
The source saysThey are generally nocturnal, benthic predators that excavate their preyNote: 'generally' in the quote qualifies 'nocturnal'; excavating is how they hunt
The page saysA digging stingray often stirs up more than its own meal
The source saysAs stingrays excavate the substrate in search of prey, they often stir up fish.
The page saysSpine for defense
The source sayscarries a sharp, serrated, venomous spine that is used in defenseNote: blockquote lead
The page saysfinds buried prey by its weak electric field, using thousands of sensors on its underside
The source saysThey also possess thousands of Ampullae of Lorenzini on their undersides, particularly concentrated around the head, which allow them to sense electrical field produced by buried preyNote: vibe.reason
The page saystags: electroreception
The source saysThey also possess thousands of Ampullae of Lorenzini on their undersides, particularly concentrated around the head, which allow them to sense electrical field produced by buried preyNote: task #1267: matches the tag's definition (ampullary pores sensing buried prey)

Source
05

Mickle, Pieniazek & Higgs 2020

Mickle, Pieniazek & Higgs (2020). Field assessment of behavioural responses of southern stingrays (Hypanus americanus) to acoustic stimuli. Royal Society Open Science.

The page saysfemales tested with low tones of 50 to 500 Hz changed their swimming at 140 dB, while males did not change until 160 dB
The source saysfemale stingrays exposed to tones (50–500 Hz) exhibit significant changes in swimming behaviours (increased time spent swimming, decreased rest time, increased surface breaches and increased side swimming with pectoral flapping) at 140 dB re 1 µPa (−2.08 to −2.40 dB re 1 m s −2 ) while males exposed to the same tones did not exhibit a change in these behaviours until 160 dB re 1 µPa
The page saysSound matters to it too
The source saysshow a distinct sensitivity to low-frequency acoustic inputs

How the table was made: a writer drafted the profile from these sources and logged each claim with its quote, a reviewer with nothing but this table checked every sentence said no more than its quote, and a script confirmed each quote appears word for word in the source. The method is in the site'sAbout page.