What the sources say

White-Spotted PufferfishTorquigener albomaculosus

Every figure, record and mechanism on the White-Spotted Pufferfish profile was written from a source, and this is the working table behind it: 55 claims checked word for word against these sources. The left column is what the page says. The right column is the source's own words, copied, not paraphrased; a ... marks a cut and[brackets] an insertion. Open any source and check it yourself.

Profile updated October 5, 2026

Source
01

Kawase, Okata & Ito 2013

Kawase, Okata & Ito (2013). Role of Huge Geometric Circular Structures in the Reproduction of a Marine Pufferfish. Scientific Reports.

The page saysThe builder is a male about 120 millimeters long.: The source saysa small male pufferfish, Torquigener sp. (Tetraodontidae) ( Fig. 1 ), measuring approximately 120 mm in total length
The page saysHis circle is roughly 2 meters across, with 24 to 32 pairs of ridges and valleys fanning out from the middle.: The source saysThe number of peak and valley pairs ranged from 24–32 (n = 10).
The page saysFemales were seen visiting a nest only in the final stage of building, once the circle was complete.: The source saysFemales were observed to visit the male's nest only during this stage of construction.
The page saysThe researchers think the female judges his work, though they could not say which feature she scores: the size, the ridges, the shells or the fine sand in the middle.: The source saysit appears reasonable to assume that females visiting male nest sites evaluate nest characteristics and that these characteristics play an important role in female mate choice. However, the definite factors affecting this choice remain unknown
The page saysThe authors suggest the valleys do not hold enough fine sand for a second round of eggs.: The source saysthe valleys may not contain sufficient fine sand particles for multiple reproductive cycles
The page saysIn 1995, divers off Amami-Oshima, an island in southern Japan, found a geometric circle about 2 meters across on the sandy seabed.: The source saysA geometric circular structure measuring approximately 2 m in diameter was found in 1995 on the seabed near southern Amami-Oshima Island in subtropical Japan. Subsequently, the circular structure was sporadically observed by native recreational divers.
The page saysNobody knew what made it, and the divers named it a "mystery circle.": The source saysThe origin of the structure was unclear ... The divers named the structure a ‘mystery circle'.
The page saysIn 2011, scientists first caught the builder at work.: The source saysWe identified a small male pufferfish ... constructing the circular structure on the seabed for the first time in 2011.
The page saysThen he swims in straight lines from the outside toward the middle, digging with his pectoral, anal and tail fins.: The source saysMales dug valleys in the sandy bottom using their pectoral fins, anal fins, and caudal fins while swimming linearly ... swam at various angles in a radial direction from the outside of the circle to the inside
The page saysThe job takes 7 to 9 days, and the finished circle has a radius of 79 to 105 centimeters.: The source sayswhich required 7–9 days to complete ... The radius of the circular structure and that of the final central zone measured 79–105 cm and 31–50 cm, respectively (n = 6
The page saysNear the end, the male places shell and coral fragments on the ridges.: The source saysmales also decorated the radially aligned peaks with shell and coral fragments
The page saysHe also flaps his anal fin over the center to draw an irregular pattern in fine sand, which the ridges help funnel inward.: The source saysThis pattern was created by flapping the anal fin on the bottom of the central zone ... The pattern was composed of the fine sand particles
The page sayswhich the ridges help funnel inward: The source saysthe radially aligned structure surrounding the nest plays an important role in gathering the fine sand particles and depositing them in the nest site
The page saysFemales were seen visiting only at this final stage.: The source saysFemales were observed to visit the male's nest only during this stage of construction.
The page saysAs one approaches he stirs up the sand, and when she enters he rushes at her several times.: The source saysWhen a female approached the circular structure, the male stirred up the sand particles in the central zone of the nest. When the female entered the nest, the male retreated from the central zone and rushed towards her several times
The page saysShe stays about a minute, and often comes back.: The source saysThe female stayed in the nest for a minute and then left, often visiting the same nest again.
The page saysThe eggs are released in the center.: The source saysthe eggs were released into the central zone of the nest
The page saysAfter spawning, the male stays 6 days to care for the eggs and does no repairs.: The source saysAfter spawning, males remained in the circular structure for 6 days to care for the eggs ... They did not perform digging or other maintenance behaviour
The page saysCurrents smooth the circle almost flat.: The source saysthe structure gradually collapsed and was smoothed to become almost flat by water currents
The page saysNo male in the study went back to an old nest: each built a new one at a separate site.: The source saysthey never returned to an old nest site but instead began to construct a new circular structure at a separate site
The page saysWhen the first study came out in 2013, this fish had been found only off southern Amami-Oshima, in small numbers and in very restricted areas.: The source saysThus far, the fish has only been found in the coastal waters off southern Amami-Oshima Island ... the fish has been found, in small numbers, in very restricted areasNote: 2013 is the publication year of Kawase, Okata & Ito, Scientific Reports
The page saysIn a flow experiment on a half-scale model of a circle, the current in the center was 24.2% lower than outside.: The source saysThe current speed in the central zone was reduced by 24.2% from that of outside the circular structure.Note: half scale from 'A fluid dynamics experiment using a 1/2 scale model of the circular structure'
The page saysspends 7 to 9 days digging a sand circle about 2 meters wide: The source saysA geometric circular structure measuring approximately 2 m in diameter ... which required 7–9 days to complete
The page saysSand architecture: digs a circle about 2 meters wide, ridged like a wheel, with its fins: The source saysMales dug valleys in the sandy bottom using their pectoral fins, anal fins, and caudal fins while swimming linearlyNote: 2 m from 'approximately 2 m in diameter'; ridges from 'radially aligned peaks and valleys'
The page saysIt was a male white-spotted pufferfish (Torquigener albomaculosus), about 120 millimeters long.: The source saysmeasuring approximately 120 mm in total length
The page saysIn 2013 the researchers wrote that three features of this nest had never been reported in any fish: ridges built around the nest site, shell decorations on them, and a pattern of fine sand in the middle.: The source saysthe nest exhibited 3 unusual characteristics that have never been reported in fish. First, radially aligned peaks and valleys were created outside the nest site; second, the peaks were decorated with shell fragments; and third, fine sand particles were gathered in the nest site to create an irregular pattern.Note: 2013 is the publication year of Kawase, Okata & Ito, Scientific Reports
The page saysHis circle is roughly 2 meters across: The source saysA geometric circular structure measuring approximately 2 m in diameter
The page saysdigs a circle about 2 meters wide: The source saysA geometric circular structure measuring approximately 2 m in diameter
The page saysEach valley is as wide as the male's body: The source saysThe width of the valleys matches the male's body width
The page saysa flat central zone of 31 to 50 centimeters in radius is left in the middle: The source saysthe radius of the circular structure and that of the final central zone measured 79–105 cm and 31–50 cm
The page saysFemales were seen visiting a nest only in the final stage of building, once the circle was complete.: The source saysDuring the final stage of construction (on the day of and the day before spawning), the circular structure was completed.
The page saysNo. By the time the eggs hatch, coarser sand has covered the fine sand in the middle and the ridges have washed almost flat. He starts again somewhere else.: The source saysthe structure gradually collapsed and was smoothed to become almost flat by water currents ... the fine sand particles were dispersed and replaced by coarser sand particles
The page saysNo. By the time the eggs hatch, coarser sand has covered the fine sand in the middle and the ridges have washed almost flat. He starts again somewhere else.: The source saysAfter the eggs hatched, males left the nest site ... they never returned to an old nest site but instead began to construct a new circular structure at a separate site.
The page saysIn a flow experiment on a half-scale model of a circle, the current in the center was 24.2% lower than outside.: The source saysA fluid dynamics experiment using a 1/2 scale model of the circular structure
The page saysA male of about 120 mm swims straight lines: The source saysmeasuring approximately 120 mm in total length ... Males dug valleys in the sandy bottom using their pectoral fins, anal fins, and caudal fins while swimming linearlyNote: vibe.reason; two passages of the same paper joined
The page saysand a 2 m ridged circle appears: The source saysA geometric circular structure measuring approximately 2 m in diameterNote: vibe.reason; the ridges are the peak and valley pairs the paper describes

Source
02

Mizuuchi et al. 2018

Mizuuchi et al. (2018). Simple rules for construction of a geometric nest structure by pufferfish. Scientific Reports.

The page saysThe male starts by pushing his belly into the sand to mark the center.: The source saysa pufferfish makes a mark by pushing its belly on the sandy bottom as the central region of a nest
The page saysOne study estimated about 10,000 digs for a whole nest.: The source saysThe total number of excavation through the nest construction is about 10000. This number was approximated from (frequency) × (total time)
The page saysA computer simulation built from a male's recorded digs reproduced the radial ditches of the outer ring, suggesting that simple repeated moves can make the pattern.: The source saysA simulation program based on these data successfully reproduced the circle pattern, suggesting that the complex circle structure can be created by the repetition of simple actions by the pufferfish.
The page saysAbout 10,000 Digs: The source saysThe total number of excavation through the nest construction is about 10000.
The page saysResearchers filmed one male building a nest in 2016 and logged where each ditch started, how long it ran and which way it pointed. A simulation that followed those rules drew the circle pattern, which suggests repeating simple actions can make it.: The source saysthe videos were recorded on June 8 and 12, 2016 for the early- and middle-stage construction of the same nest
The page saysResearchers filmed one male building a nest in 2016 and logged where each ditch started, how long it ran and which way it pointed. A simulation that followed those rules drew the circle pattern, which suggests repeating simple actions can make it.: The source saysThe entry position, the length, and the direction of each ditch were recorded. A simulation program based on these data successfully reproduced the circle pattern, suggesting that the complex circle structure can be created by the repetition of simple actions by the pufferfish.
The page saysIt was a male white-spotted pufferfish (Torquigener albomaculosus), about 120 millimeters long.: The source saysKawase et al . found that the large circle is a nest structure built by a small male pufferfish, Torquigener albomaculosus

Source
03

FishBase

Torquigener albomaculosus, White-spotted pufferfish. FishBase.

The page saysSandy seabed off Amami-Oshima, in the Ryukyu Islands of southern Japan, seen by divers at 10 to 27 meters and around 30 meters: The source saysdepth range 10 - 27 mNote: Northwest Pacific: Japan, Ryukyu Is.
The page saysSandy seabed off Amami-Oshima, in the Ryukyu Islands of southern Japan, seen by divers at 10 to 27 meters and around 30 meters: The source saysThis species has been observed by divers at 10-27 m on sandy bottom.
The page saysNot Evaluated: The source saysIUCN Red List Status (Ref. 130435 : Version 2025-2 (Global)) Not EvaluatedNote: GBIF and Crossref hold no assessment for this name
The page saysFishBase gives a maximum of 12.0 cm total length for a male and 9.1 cm standard length (snout to tail base) for a female.: The source saysMax length : 12.0 cm TL male/unsexed; (Ref. 97259 ); 9.1 cm SL (female)
The page saysDivers have seen it at 10 to 27 meters on sandy bottom.: The source saysThis species has been observed by divers at 10-27 m on sandy bottom.
The page saysA 12-centimeter pufferfish: The source saysMax length : 12.0 cm TL male/unsexed
The page saysSandy seabed off Amami-Oshima, in the Ryukyu Islands of southern Japan, seen by divers at 10 to 27 meters and around 30 meters: The source saysAnother population is found around 30 m at the northern part of Amami-oshima Island.
The page saysSandy seabed off Amami-Oshima, in the Ryukyu Islands of southern Japan, seen by divers at 10 to 27 meters and around 30 meters: The source saysbuilds "mystery circles" on sandy bottoms in the Ryukyu Islands, Japan
The page saysNot stated by the sources on this page: The source saysTrophic level (Ref. 69278 ) 3.3 ±0.2 se; based on size and trophs of closest relativesNote: true by construction: none of the three sources states a diet for the species; FishBase's trophic level is inferred from relatives, not observed
The page saysFishBase now adds another population at around 30 meters off the island's north.: The source saysAnother population is found around 30 m at the northern part of Amami-oshima Island.
The page saysto impress a date: The source saysThe circular structure plays an important role in influencing female mate choice
The page saysdangerLevel: Low: The source saysThreat to humans Harmless

How the table was made: a writer drafted the profile from these sources and logged each claim with its quote, a reviewer with nothing but this table checked every sentence said no more than its quote, and a script confirmed each quote appears word for word in the source. The method is in the site'sAbout page.

Source01