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What the sources say

Common CuttlefishSepia officinalis

Every figure, record and mechanism on the Common Cuttlefish profile was written from a source, and this is the working table behind it: 70 claims checked word for word against these sources. The left column is what the page says. The right column is the source's own words, copied, not paraphrased; a ... marks a cut and[brackets] an insertion. Open any source and check it yourself.

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Source
01

The Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN)

Common cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis). The Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN).

The page saysseagrass beds
The source saysa preference for sandy substratum (for hiding) and seagrass beds
The page sayscontinental shelves
The source saysprefers moderately warm, shallow coastal waters as well as continental shelves
The page saysShallow coastal seas
The source saysprefers moderately warm, shallow coastal waters as well as continental shelvesNote: field says 'coastal seas', source says 'coastal waters'; synonymous
The page sayseastern Atlantic
The source saysRecorded from the eastern Atlantic
The page saysMediterranean
The source saysfrom the Baltic and North Sea to South Africa and in the Mediterranean
The page saysCrabs
The source saysTypically feeds on Brachyuran crabs
The page saysbottom-dwelling fish
The source saysdemersal fish (gobiids and syngnathids)Note: demersal means bottom-dwelling
The page saysamphipods, which are shrimp-like crustaceans
The source sayswith minor amounts of amphipodsNote: 'shrimp-like crustaceans' glosses amphipods for the reader; the source names amphipods
The page saysgrows a mantle up to 45 centimeters long
The source saysIt has a mantle length of up to 45 cm.
The page saysthe largest individual to be recorded reached 60 centimeters
The source saysThe largest individual to be recorded reached 60 cm in lengthNote: MarLIN measures size as dorsal mantle length; ADW states the same 60 cm record
The page saysa maximum of two years is common
The source saysA maximum lifespan of two years is common with the exception of some individuals reaching four years of age in culture (Bettencourt & Guerra, 1999).
The page saysit is said to carry one of the largest brain-to-body ratios of any invertebrate
The source saysCuttlefish is also said to have one of the largest brain-to-body ratios of any invertebrate.
The page sayseight arms
The source saysSepia officinalis has eight arms and two elongated tentacles
The page saysIts saliva contains cephalotoxin, which induces paralysis and immobilizes prey
The source saysSaliva contains cephalotoxin which induces paralysis and immobilizes prey.
The page saysIt typically feeds on crabs and bottom-dwelling fish like gobies, with minor amounts of amphipods
The source saysTypically feeds on Brachyuran crabs and demersal fish (gobiids and syngnathids), with minor amounts of amphipods and little cannibalism.Note: demersal = bottom-dwelling, gobiids = gobies
The page saysa porous internal shell
The source saysThe internal cuttlebone is incredibly porous
The page saysThe cuttlefish alters its buoyancy by controlling how much liquid moves into and out of it
The source saysSepia officinalis can also alter their buoyancy by controlling how much liquid is placed into or out of the cuttlebone (Denton & Gilpin-Brown, 1961).
The page saysIts recorded depth range runs from the surface to about 200 meters
The source saysDepth range 0-200 m
The page saysbelow 200 meters the ambient water pressure is enough to implode the shell
The source saysBelow 200 m, the ambient pressure of the water is enough to implode the inner shell (Ward & Boletzky, 1984).
The page saysMate choice in female common cuttlefish appears to be a preference, not for dominance, but for the absence of zebra banding
The source saysMate choice occurs in female Sepia officinalis and appears to be a preference, not for dominance, but for the absence of zebra banding.
The page sayspossibly because banding signals aggression in a male
The source saysThis might be because zebra branding infers aggression in the male (Boal, 1997).Note: source spells it 'zebra branding', evidently a typo for 'banding'; meaning preserved
The page saysthe species' recorded depth range runs from the surface to about 200 meters
The source saysDepth range 0-200 m
The page saysbelow that depth the surrounding water pressure is enough to implode the shell
The source saysBelow 200 m, the ambient pressure of the water is enough to implode the inner shell (Ward & Boletzky, 1984).

Source
02

Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan

Sepia officinalis. Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan.

The page saysworms
The source saysnemertean worms, polychaetes
The page saysgastropods like sea snails
The source sayshas also been known to eat gastropodsNote: 'like sea snails' is an example of a marine gastropod, added as a gloss; the source names gastropods
The page saysweighs 2 kilograms in subtropical areas and 4 kilograms in temperate ones
The source saysWeights are between 2 kg (subtropic areas) and 4 kg (temperate areas).
The page saysit typically breeds only once
The source saysEuropean cuttlefish typically breed only once in their lifetime.
The page saysafter spawning both males and females die
The source saysafter spawning both male and females die
The page saysThe common cuttlefish usually spends the daytime hidden in sand
The source saysSepia officinalis commonly spends the daytime hidden in sand.Note: page says 'usually', source says 'commonly'; synonymous
The page saysis active at night
The source saysis active at night and spends most of its time on the sea floor
The page saysit strikes with two long feeding tentacles tipped in sucker-lined clubs
The source saysshoot out its two longer tentacles, grab the prey using the suckers on the tentacular clubs at the tips of the tentacles
The page saysuses its eight arms to capture and maneuver the prey while it tears at it with its radula and beak
The source saysuse its arms to capture and maneuver the prey while it tears at the prey with its radula and beak
The page sayshas also been known to eat gastropods like sea snails, worms and even other cuttlefish
The source sayshas also been known to eat gastropods, nemertean worms, polychaetes and even other cuttlefishNote: 'like sea snails' is a gloss on gastropods
The page saysprey for large fish, seals, sharks and dolphins
The source saysSepia officinalis is prey for large fish, seals, sharks, dolphins and whales.
The page saysavoids being eaten by camouflaging with its surroundings and disorienting predators by releasing ink
The source saysThe cuttlefish avoids predation by camouflaging with its environment, disorienting predators by releasing ink when threatened
The page saysdangerLevel: Low
The source saysThere are no known adverse effects of Sepia officinalis on humans.Note: Low is 'effectively harmless to people'. MarLIN's 'Is the species harmful? Yes' refers to cephalotoxin in the saliva that immobilizes prey; neither MarLIN nor ADW describes injury to a person. Was Medium.
The page saysweightKg: 3
The source saysWeights are between 2 kg (subtropic areas) and 4 kg (temperate areas).Note: Midpoint of ADW's 2 to 4 kg. Recorded because the engine's name guess made the cuttlefish Medium, and 3 kg is Light.

Source
03

Barratt & Allcock 2012

Barratt & Allcock (2012). Sepia officinalis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2012: e.T162664A939991.

The page saysLeast Concern
The source saysIUCN Red List category: Least Concern (LC).

Source
04

Allen et al. 2013

Allen et al. (2013). Cuttlefish skin papilla morphology suggests a muscular hydrostatic function for rapid changeability. Journal of Morphology.

The page saysturns its skin from smooth to spiked in moments
The source saysdramatically and quickly change their skin from smooth and flat to rugose and three-dimensional
The page saysshape-shifting papillae muscles
The source sayspapillae are composed of an extensive network of dermal erector muscles
The page saysCuttlefish and their bottom-dwelling octopus relatives share a capability unique in the animal kingdom
The source saysBenthic octopuses and cuttlefish possess the capability, unique in the animal kingdom, to dramatically and quickly change their skin
The page saysdramatically and quickly changing their skin from smooth and flat to rugose and three-dimensional
The source saysdramatically and quickly change their skin from smooth and flat to rugose and three-dimensional
The page saysrings of muscle at the base that contract and push the overlying skin upward
The source saysconcentric circular dermal erector muscles near the papilla's base contract and push the overlying tissue upward and away from the mantle surface
The page saysmuscles running across each papilla pull its edges toward the center to sculpt the shape
The source sayshorizontally arranged dermal erector muscles pull the papilla's perimeter toward its center and determine its shape
The page saysa separate meshwork of thin muscles is thought to pull it flat again
The source saysNumerous, thin subepidermal muscles form a meshwork between the chromatophore layer and the epidermis and putatively provide active papillary retraction
The page saysThe skin layer that contains the pigmented chromatophores handles color
The source saysthe skin layer that contains the pigmented chromatophores
The page sayspapillae can dramatically and quickly change the skin from smooth and flat to rugose and three-dimensional
The source saysdramatically and quickly change their skin from smooth and flat to rugose and three-dimensional
The page saysan ability cuttlefish and their octopus relatives share uniquely in the animal kingdom
The source saysBenthic octopuses and cuttlefish possess the capability, unique in the animal kingdom
The page saysRings of muscle at each papilla's base contract and push the overlying skin upward
The source saysconcentric circular dermal erector muscles near the papilla's base contract and push the overlying tissue upward
The page saysmuscles running across it pull the edges toward the center to shape it
The source sayshorizontally arranged dermal erector muscles pull the papilla's perimeter toward its center and determine its shape
The page saysrings of muscle at the base of each papilla contract and push the skin up
The source saysconcentric circular dermal erector muscles near the papilla's base contract and push the overlying tissue upwardNote: vibe.reason
The page saysfrom smooth and flat to three-dimensional in moments
The source saysdramatically and quickly change their skin from smooth and flat to rugose and three-dimensionalNote: vibe.reason

Source
05

Osorio et al. 2022

Osorio et al. (2022). Multi-level control of adaptive camouflage by European cuttlefish. Current Biology.

The page saysabout 30 skin pattern components
The source sayscontrol the expression of about 30 pattern components to produce a range of body patterns
The page saysabout 30 separate skin pattern components
The source sayscontrol the expression of about 30 pattern components to produce a range of body patterns
The page saysif each one worked on its own, researchers calculate the cuttlefish could produce at least a billion different combinations
The source saysIf each component were under independent control, cuttlefish could produce at least 2 30 patternsNote: 2^30 = 1,073,741,824, which is over a billion; the source's own conditional ('if each component were under independent control ... could produce') is preserved rather than asserted as fact
The page saysdrawing on about 30 pattern components
The source sayscontrol the expression of about 30 pattern components to produce a range of body patternsNote: vibe.reason

Source
06

Mäthger, Barbosa, Miner & Hanlon 2006

Mäthger, Barbosa, Miner & Hanlon (2006). Color blindness and contrast perception in cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) determined by a visual sensorimotor assay. Vision Research.

The page sayscolor-blind
The source sayswe show clearly that cuttlefish must be color blind
The page saysA cuttlefish's eye runs on a sole visual pigment
The source saysmaximum absorption wavelength of S. officinalis' sole visual pigment, 492 nm
The page saysa 2006 study put that to the test
The source sayswe show clearly that cuttlefish must be color blindNote: 2006 is the reference's publication year (see reference metadata), not part of this quote
The page saysshown checkerboards pairing a green square against grey squares matched for brightness
The source says16 grey shades (from white to black) were paired with one green shade (matched to the maximum absorption wavelength of S. officinalis' sole visual pigment, 492 nm), assuming that one of the grey shades would give a similar achromatic signal to the tested green
The page saysthe cuttlefish showed no disruptive camouflage pattern on the matched pair, suggesting the board looked like a uniform background to its eyes
The source saysthey showed non-disruptive coloration on the checkerboards whose color intensities were matched to the Sepia visual system, suggesting that the substrates appeared to their eyes as uniform backgrounds
The page saysResearchers concluded cuttlefish must be color blind
The source sayswe show clearly that cuttlefish must be color blind
The page saysthey can still perceive objects that differ in contrast by approximately 15 percent
The source sayscuttlefish are able to perceive objects in their background that differ in contrast by approximately 15%
The page saysIts eye runs on a sole visual pigment
The source saysmaximum absorption wavelength of S. officinalis' sole visual pigment, 492 nm
The page saysa 2006 study testing cuttlefish on checkerboards that paired a green square against grey squares matched for brightness
The source says16 grey shades (from white to black) were paired with one green shade (matched to the maximum absorption wavelength of S. officinalis' sole visual pigment, 492 nm)Note: 2006 is the reference's publication year (see reference metadata), not part of this quote
The page saysfound no disruptive camouflage response on the matched pair, as if the board were a uniform background
The source saysthey showed non-disruptive coloration on the checkerboards whose color intensities were matched to the Sepia visual system, suggesting that the substrates appeared to their eyes as uniform backgrounds

Source
07

Shashar et al. 2000

Shashar et al. (2000). Cuttlefish use polarization sensitivity in predation on silvery fish. Vision Research.

The page saysreads polarized light
The source saysCuttlefish preyed preferably on fish with normal polarization reflection over fish that did not reflect linearly polarized light
The page sayspolarized vision that may help it see through other animals' camouflage
The source sayswe suggest that polarization vision is used to break the countershading camouflage of light-reflecting silvery fish
The page sayscuttlefish preyed preferably on fish with normal polarization reflection over fish that did not reflect linearly polarized light
The source saysCuttlefish preyed preferably on fish with normal polarization reflection over fish that did not reflect linearly polarized light
The page sayswhich researchers suggest shows the cuttlefish uses that reflection to break through the mirror-like camouflage of silvery prey
The source sayswe suggest that polarization vision is used to break the countershading camouflage of light-reflecting silvery fish

How the table was made: a writer drafted the profile from these sources and logged each claim with its quote, a reviewer with nothing but this table checked every sentence said no more than its quote, and a script confirmed each quote appears word for word in the source. The method is in the site'sAbout page.