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What the sources say

Cane ToadRhinella marina

Every figure, record and mechanism on the Cane Toad profile was written from a source, and this is the working table behind it: 52 claims checked word for word against these sources. The left column is what the page says. The right column is the source's own words, copied, not paraphrased; a ... marks a cut and[brackets] an insertion. Open any source and check it yourself.

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Source
01

Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan

Rhinella marina (Cane Toad). Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan.

The page saysCarnivore and insectivore; ants, beetles and earwigs, plus dragonflies, grasshoppers, true bugs, crustaceans, gastropods, plant matter and even dog and cat food
The source saysIt feeds on ants, beetles, and earwigs in southern Florida, but has been found with dragonflies, grasshoppers, truebugs, crustaceans, gastropods, plant matter and even dog and cat food in their stomachs
The page sayswhich may cause profuse salivation, twitching, vomiting, shallow breathing and collapse of the hind limbs in predators
The source saysthey may cause profuse salivation, twitching, vomiting; shallow breathing and collapse of the hind limbs.
The page saysand even death in some of them, including dogs
The source saysThis toxin can cause temporary paralysis or even death in some predators, including dogs.
The page saysis native from Texas's Rio Grande Valley south to the central Amazon and southeastern Peru
The source saysThe natural range of Bufo marinus is from the Rio Grande Valley of Texas south to the Central Amazon and southeastern Peru.
The page saysAnimal Diversity Web gives an average mass of 106.25 grams
The source saysAverage mass 106.25 g
The page saysIt forages at night, and a southern Florida study found ants, beetles and earwigs in its diet, along with crustaceans, snails and even dog and cat food
The source saysforages primarily nocturnally in mature forests and roadways. It feeds on ants, beetles, and earwigs in southern Florida, but has been found with dragonflies, grasshoppers, truebugs, crustaceans, gastropods, plant matter and even dog and cat food in their stomachsNote: the whole diet list is Krakauer 1968, a southern Florida study, so the page keeps that scope
The page saysA pair of huge parotoid glands stretches from each eardrum halfway down the toad's back
The source saysBufo marinus possesses huge paratoid glands stretching from the anterior side of the tympanum to halfway down the back.Note: tympanum given as its common name, eardrum; the source's direction (anterior side) is dropped rather than reversed
The page saysoozing a thick white fluid when the toad is confronted by a predator
The source saysWhen confronted by a predator, it is able to secrete bufotoxin from the paratoid and other glands on the back in the form of white viscous fluid.
The page saysAnimal Diversity Web says the toxin may cause profuse salivation, twitching, vomiting, shallow breathing and collapse of the hind limbs, and even death in some predators, including dogs
The source saysthey may cause profuse salivation, twitching, vomiting; shallow breathing and collapse of the hind limbs. This toxin can cause temporary paralysis or even death in some predators, including dogs.
The page saysAnimal Diversity Web notes no evidence the toad has controlled any pest in Australia, where it is now considered a pest species itself
The source saysthere is no evidence that it has controlled any pest in Australia and it is now considered a pest species itself in its introduced range of Australia
The page saysThe eggs hatch in two to seven days
The source saysThe eggs hatch in 2 to 7 days.
The page saysa cane toad's parotoid glands release a thick white fluid
The source saysWhen confronted by a predator, it is able to secrete bufotoxin from the paratoid and other glands on the back in the form of white viscous fluid.
The page saysthe toxins may cause profuse salivation, twitching, vomiting, shallow breathing and collapse of the hind limbs
The source saysthey may cause profuse salivation, twitching, vomiting; shallow breathing and collapse of the hind limbs.
The page saysthe toxin can cause temporary paralysis or even death in some predators, including dogs
The source saysThis toxin can cause temporary paralysis or even death in some predators, including dogs.
The page saysdangerLevel: Medium
The source saysNegative Impacts injures humans poisonousNote: task #625; was High. Medium is 'Can injure, but rarely seriously'. ADW's row is 'injures humans' and Business Queensland adds only 'can harm domestic animals if eaten' and salmonella transmission; no cached source reports a human death, so Deadly is not supported, and a passive skin secretion is not 'dangerous when cornered' (High).
The page saysweightKg: 0.106
The source saysAverage mass 106.25 gNote: task #625; Light class (0.1 to 10 kg). The name guess had no rule for 'toad'.
The page saystags: toxic-chemical
The source saysWhen confronted by a predator, it is able to secrete bufotoxin from the paratoid and other glands on the back in the form of white viscous fluid.Note: task #625; replaces 'venomous', which tagMetadata.ts defines as delivered 'through fangs, stingers, spurs, or harpoons'. ADW's own row is 'poisonous'.

Source
02

Australian Museum

Cane Toad. Australian Museum.

The page saysshoulder glands whose toxins often kill the Australian native predators that try to eat it
The source saysAdults have large parotid glands on the shoulders, which secrete toxins when the toad is under threat. These toxins often kill Australian native predators that try to eat the toad
The page saysLarge parotoid glands on the shoulders secrete toxins when the toad is under threat
The source saysAdults have large parotid glands on the shoulders, which secrete toxins when the toad is under threat.
The page saysThe Australian Museum calls it a very large toad, up to 15 centimeters in body length and occasionally 25
The source saysA very large species of toad reaching up to 15 cm in body length, and occasionally attaining 25 cm.
The page saysShoulder-Mounted Poison Factory
The source saysAdults have large parotid glands on the shoulders
The page saysAustralia's Bureau of Sugar Experiment Stations imported about 100 cane toads from Hawaii to a research station near Cairns
The source saysThe Australian Bureau of Sugar Experimental Stations imported about 100 toads from Hawaii to the Meringa Experimental Station near Cairns.
The page sayshoping they would eat the cane beetles whose grubs chew the roots of Queensland's sugarcane
The source saysCane Toads were introduced to Australia to eat...the Greyback Cane Beetle. The...larvae of these beetles eat the roots of sugar cane and kill or stunt the plants.
The page saysThe toads bred quickly, and more than 3,000 were released into north Queensland's cane plantations in July 1935
The source saysThe toads bred quickly and more than 3000 were released in the sugar cane plantations of north Queensland in July 1935.
The page saysIt has spread through most of Queensland, west into the Northern Territory and the Kimberley in Western Australia, and south to the mid-north coast of New South Wales
The source sayssince then has spread very rapidly throughout most of QLD, west through the northern NT to the Kimberley region in WA, as well as south to the mid north coast of NSW.
The page saystadpoles can become toads in a month, or in ten days in warm shallow water
The source saystake one month to develop into toads, although tadpoles in colder areas can take longer, and tadpoles in warm shallow water can develop in just 10 days.
The page saysThe Australian Bureau of Sugar Experiment Stations imported about 100 cane toads from Hawaii to a research station near Cairns
The source saysThe Australian Bureau of Sugar Experimental Stations imported about 100 toads from Hawaii to the Meringa Experimental Station near Cairns.
The page saysmore than 3,000 were released into north Queensland's sugar cane plantations in July 1935
The source saysThe toads bred quickly and more than 3000 were released in the sugar cane plantations of north Queensland in July 1935.
The page saysto eat the cane beetles whose grubs chew the roots of sugar cane and kill or stunt the plants
The source saysCane Toads were introduced to Australia to eat...the Greyback Cane Beetle. The...larvae of these beetles eat the roots of sugar cane and kill or stunt the plants.
The page saysturned loose in Queensland in 1935 to eat cane beetles
The source saysmore than 3000 were released in the sugar cane plantations of north Queensland in July 1935

Source
03

Business Queensland, Queensland Government

Cane toad. Business Queensland, Queensland Government.

The page saysTropical and subtropical lowlands near fresh water, plus tropical savanna, grassland, disturbed forest, forest edges, farmland and urban areas
The source sayscommonly found in tropical and subtropical lowlands close to freshwater breeding areas...Also found in urban and urban fringe areas, tropical savannas, grasslands, disturbed forests, forest edges, forests with limited understorey and agricultural areas.
The page saysIt lives at least 5 years in the wild, up to 15 in captivity
The source saysLives at least 5 years in the wild, up to 15 years in captivity.
The page saysThey proved ineffective, Business Queensland says
The source saysThey proved ineffective in this role, but adapted well to the Australian environment and spread quickly.
The page saysA female lays up to 35,000 eggs in a single clutch, in long gelatinous strings
The source saysLays eggs in long gelatinous 'strings'...Lays up to 35,000 eggs in a single clutch.

Source
04

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2023

Rhinella marina. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2023: e.T100099625A2951416.

The page saysLeast Concern
The source saysIUCN Red List category: Least Concern (LC).

Source
05

Hudson et al. 2016

Hudson et al. (2016). Constructing an Invasion Machine: The Rapid Evolution of a Dispersal-Enhancing Phenotype During the Cane Toad Invasion of Australia. PLOS ONE.

The page saysover an 80-year period the toads' rate of invasion across tropical Australia rose from around 15 to 60 kilometers a year
The source saysAs cane toads (Rhinella marina) have spread across tropical Australia over an 80-year period, their rate of invasion has increased from around 15 to 60 km per annum.
The page saysToads at the front disperse much faster and further than those in the range core
The source saysToads at the invasion front disperse much faster and further than conspecifics from range-core areas, and their offspring inherit that rapid dispersal rate.
The page saysThree-dimensional analysis of their bones found wider forelimbs, narrower hindlimbs and more compact skulls at the front
The source saysby conducting three-dimensional morphometric analyses of toads from both range-core and invasion-front populations. Morphology of heads, limbs, pectoral girdles and pelvic girdles differed significantly between toads from the two areas, ranging from 0.5% to 16.5% difference in mean bone dimensions between populations, with invasion-front toads exhibiting wider forelimbs, narrower hindlimbs and more compact skulls.
The page sayschanges that plausibly reflect more bounding, many short hops in quick succession, rather than separate large leaps
The source saysThose changes plausibly reflect an increased reliance on bounding (multiple short hops in quick succession) rather than separate large leaps.
The page sayssuit bounding, many short hops in quick succession rather than one big leap
The source saysThose changes plausibly reflect an increased reliance on bounding (multiple short hops in quick succession) rather than separate large leaps.Note: task #625; vibe.reason mechanism.
The page saysits wider forelimbs and narrower hindlimbs
The source sayswith invasion-front toads exhibiting wider forelimbs, narrower hindlimbs and more compact skulls.Note: task #625; vibe.reason.
The page saysthe front's advance rose from around 15 to 60 kilometers a year
The source saysAs cane toads (Rhinella marina) have spread across tropical Australia over an 80-year period, their rate of invasion has increased from around 15 to 60 km per annum.Note: task #625; vibe.reason.

Source
06

Crossland, Alford & Shine 2008

Crossland, Alford & Shine (2008). Impact of the invasive cane toad (Bufo marinus) on an Australian frog (Opisthodon ornatus) depends on minor variation in reproductive timing. Oecologia.

The page saysA study of the Australian frog Opisthodon ornatus found that eating the toad's toxic eggs reduced the native tadpoles' survival
The source saysPredation on toxic toad eggs reduced the survival of O. ornatus and B. marinus.
The page saysthough survivors grew more rapidly and turned into larger frogs
The source saysThe consequent reduction in tadpole densities allowed the remaining O. ornatus tadpoles to grow more rapidly and to metamorphose at larger body sizes (>60% disparity in mean mass).

Source
07

Ward-Fear et al. 2024

Ward-Fear et al. (2024). Teacher toads: Buffering apex predators from toxic invaders in a remote tropical landscape. Conservation Letters.

The page saysSmall-scale trials show vulnerable predators can learn to drop toads from their diets
The source saysSmall-scale trials show that vulnerable predators exposed to small (nonlethal) toads can learn to delete toads from their diets, increasing survival of those predators after toads invade.
The page saysresearchers released more than 200,000 toad eggs, tadpoles and toadlets, too small to deliver a fatal dose, ahead of the invasion front
The source saysSmall-scale trials show that vulnerable predators exposed to small (nonlethal) toads can learn to delete toads from their diets, increasing survival of those predators after toads invade. We deployed this method in the remote Kimberley region of tropical Australia, with >200,000 eggs, tadpoles, or metamorph toads released in advance of the expanding toad invasion front.Note: 'toadlets' is the paper's 'metamorph toads'; 'too small to deliver a fatal dose' is its 'small (nonlethal) toads'
The page saysCamera surveys found large monitor lizards almost wiped out on control plots but abundant where the "teacher toads" had been laid out
The source saysRemote camera surveys before and after "teacher toad" deployment showed that large monitor lizards (Varanus panoptes) were almost extirpated from control plots but remained abundant in treatment plots
The page saysSmall-scale trials show that vulnerable predators exposed to small, nonlethal toads can learn to drop toads from their diets
The source saysSmall-scale trials show that vulnerable predators exposed to small (nonlethal) toads can learn to delete toads from their diets, increasing survival of those predators after toads invade.
The page saysresearchers released more than 200,000 "teacher toads", eggs, tadpoles and toadlets, ahead of the expanding invasion front
The source saysWe deployed this method in the remote Kimberley region of tropical Australia, with >200,000 eggs, tadpoles, or metamorph toads released in advance of the expanding toad invasion front.Note: 'toadlets' is the paper's 'metamorph toads'
The page sayscamera surveys found large monitor lizards almost wiped out on control plots but still abundant on treatment plots
The source saysRemote camera surveys before and after "teacher toad" deployment showed that large monitor lizards (Varanus panoptes) were almost extirpated from control plots but remained abundant in treatment plots

Source
08

Indigo et al. 2023

Indigo et al. (2023). Can conditioned taste aversion be deployed at a landscape level to mitigate the impact of invasive cane toads on northern quolls? Wildlife Research.

The page saysa trial baiting northern quolls into avoiding toads backfired, with a 94% drop in quoll numbers at treatment sites against 65% at controls
The source saysWe observed a 65% reduction in quoll population size at control sites and a 94% reduction at treatment sites: a significant effect of aversion training, but in the direction opposite to that expected.
The page saysMost animals, the researchers found, were no longer averse within 120 days of training
The source saysOur trials indicate that most animals are no longer averse within 120 days post-training.

How the table was made: a writer drafted the profile from these sources and logged each claim with its quote, a reviewer with nothing but this table checked every sentence said no more than its quote, and a script confirmed each quote appears word for word in the source. The method is in the site'sAbout page.