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What the sources say

Atlantic PuffinFratercula arctica

Every figure, record and mechanism on the Atlantic Puffin profile was written from a source, and this is the working table behind it: 67 claims checked word for word against these sources. The left column is what the page says. The right column is the source's own words, copied, not paraphrased; a ... marks a cut and[brackets] an insertion. Open any source and check it yourself.

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Source
01

BTO BirdFacts

Puffin. BTO BirdFacts.

The page saysoften on grassy slopes above cliffs
The source saysPuffins are predominantly burrow-nesters using sites within short grassy swards, often located on sloping ground above cliffs.
The page saysIn the British Trust for Ornithology's ringing data, a puffin that reaches breeding age has a typical life expectancy of 18 years
The source saysstatistics on nesting, eggs and lifespan based on BTO ringing and nest recording data ... Typical life expectancy of bird reaching breeding age 18 years
The page saysthe oldest ringed puffin was 42 years and 21 days old, a record set in 2019
The source saysMaximum age from a ringed bird 42 years, 21 days (set in 2019)Note: BTO's ringing-scheme record; the sentence opens with the British Trust for Ornithology's ringing data, so it is not framed as a world record
The page saysand often on grassy slopes above cliffs
The source saysPuffins are predominantly burrow-nesters using sites within short grassy swards, often located on sloping ground above cliffs.
The page saysMany of the burrows are dug by the puffins themselves, but they will also take over burrows from rabbits or Manx shearwaters
The source saysAlthough many of these burrows will have been excavated by the Puffins themselves, they are not averse to taking over burrows from Rabbits or Manx Shearwaters.
The page saysincubation typically lasts five to six weeks
The source saysIncubation Incubation by Female (occ. Male) Typical duration 36-43 daysNote: 36 to 43 days is five to six weeks; Audubon gives 36-45 days, usually 39-42
The page saysadults weighed in Britain average about 390 grams
The source saysAll adults 386.9±40.1 g (325-450 g, N=467)Note: BTO biometrics from live British birds, replacing Audubon's 310-550 g (#185)
The page saysIt usually first breeds at about five years old
The source saysTypical life expectancy of bird reaching breeding age 18 years with breeding typically at 5 yearsNote: re-pointed from Audubon to BTO ringing data (#185)

Source
02

The Wildlife Trusts

Puffin. The Wildlife Trusts.

The page saysstretches 26 to 29 centimeters long with a wingspan of 47 to 63 centimeters
The source saysLength: 26-29cm Wingspan: 47-63cmNote: current page refuses scripts and Chrome (Cloudflare); text cached from the Wayback copy of 2026-06-21. All About Birds /id (Wayback 2026-07-12) agrees on length: 'Length: 10.2-11.4 in (26-29 cm)'. Replaces Audubon's 25 to 33 cm (#262)

Source
03

RSPB

Puffin. RSPB.

The page saysA bright-billed seabird
The source sayswith its bright bill and paddle-like feet
The page saysIts legs, usually bright reddish orange in summer, turn a muted yellow
The source saysTheir legs, usually a bright reddish orange in summer, turn a muted yellow.
The page saysIt is rarely seen like this, because in winter it is usually far out at sea
The source saysWe don’t often see them in their winter wear, as they’re usually far out at sea.Note: 'because' restates the source's own 'as'
The page saysThe UK is home to about 9 percent of Europe's puffins
The source saysThe UK is home to about 9% of Europe's Puffins, which breed on islands and sea cliffs around our coasts.
The page saysaccording to the 2023 Seabirds Count it lost 23 percent of them in the previous 20 years
The source saysAccording to 2023's Seabirds Count, the latest seabird census, 23% of Puffins have been lost from the UK in the past 20 years.
The page saysClimate change and industrial-scale overfishing have hit puffins hard
The source saysPuffins have been heavily impacted by climate change and industrial-scale overfishing.
The page saysIn the southern parts of their range, including the UK, sandeels are a staple food
The source saysIn the southern parts of their range, like the UK, sandeels are a staple food for Puffins.
The page saysIn 2024 the UK banned industrial sandeel fishing in the English North Sea and all Scottish waters to protect seabirds
The source saysIn 2024, the UK banned industrial sandeel fishing in the English North Sea and all Scottish waters, offering a lifeline to Puffins and other seabirds.
The page saysand its head fades to gray
The source saystheir bellies and heads fade to greyNote: (#257)

Source
04

Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan

Fratercula arctica (Atlantic puffin). Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan.

The page saysJagged marks on its upper bill help it carry more fish
The source saysThe top jaw of the beak has jagged marks on it so the species can carry more fish when hunting.
The page saysJagged marks on its upper bill help it carry more fish when it hunts
The source saysThe top jaw of the beak has jagged marks on it so the species can carry more fish when hunting.

Source
05

Kovacs & Meyers 2000

Kovacs & Meyers (2000). Anatomy and histochemistry of flight muscles in a wing-propelled diving bird, the Atlantic Puffin, Fratercula arctica. Journal of Morphology.

The page saysflies underwater on its wings
The source saysa Wing-Propelled Diving Bird, the Atlantic Puffin ... Twenty-three species within the avian family Alcidae are capable of wing-propelled flight in the air and underwater.
The page saysits wings drive it through both air and water
The source saysa Wing-Propelled Diving Bird, the Atlantic Puffin ... Twenty-three species within the avian family Alcidae are capable of wing-propelled flight in the air and underwater.
The page saysThe puffin is a wing-propelled diver: its wings drive it through the air and underwater
The source saysa Wing-Propelled Diving Bird, the Atlantic Puffin ... Twenty-three species within the avian family Alcidae are capable of wing-propelled flight in the air and underwater.
The page saysAuks have often been studied to see whether flying underwater costs them flying ability in the air
The source saysAlcids have been viewed as Northern Hemisphere parallels to penguins, and have often been studied to see if their underwater flight comes at a cost, compromising their aerial flying ability.Note: alcids are the auk family, Alcidae
The page saysA 2000 study found the puffin's primary flight muscles are largely aerobic
The source saysMuscle fiber types were largely aerobic in both muscles ... The presence of these two fiber types in the primary flight muscles of puffinsNote: 2000 is the paper's publication year (Journal of Morphology 244)
The page saysIts authors suggest both kinds of flight need muscle like that, and that auks are a stable adaptation to both rather than a compromise
The source sayssuggests that aerial and underwater flight necessitate a largely aerobic fiber complement. We suggest that alcids do not represent an adaptive compromise, but a stable adaptation for wing-propelled locomotion both in the air and underwater.Note: 'rather than a compromise' restates 'do not represent an adaptive compromise, but'
The page saysWings Built for Two Jobs
The source sayscapable of wing-propelled flight in the air and underwater

Source
06

Guilford et al. 2011

Guilford et al. (2011). A Dispersive Migration in the Atlantic Puffin and Its Implications for Migratory Navigation. PLoS ONE.

The page saysPuffins tracked from Skomer, an island in Wales
The source saysWe tracked birds using geolocators (Mk 13 or Mk14; British Antarctic Survey, Cambridge) at a compact sub-colony of Puffins at The Isthmus on Skomer Island, Wales, UK
The page saysspread widely outside the breeding season
The source saysTracked birds showed a complex pattern of migratory movements during the non-breeding months, starting with highly dispersive movements into the Atlantic.
The page sayssome went as far as Greenland, and later in the winter some reached the Mediterranean
The source saysIn August most birds migrate away from the colony, most in a NW-W direction, some as far as Greenland ... and then later in the winter they move southwards, some as far as the Mediterranean
The page saysEach bird was more likely to follow a route similar to its own previous migration than another puffin's
The source saysindividuals are significantly more likely to follow a migration similar to their own previous route than that of another Puffin
The page sayswithout their parents
The source saysthe young fledge at night without their parentsNote: (#257)

Source
07

BirdLife International 2021

BirdLife International (2021). Fratercula arctica. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021: e.T22694927A166290968.

The page saysVulnerable
The source saysIUCN Red List category: Vulnerable (VU).
The page saysThe IUCN lists the species as Vulnerable
The source saysIUCN Red List category: Vulnerable (VU).

Source
08

Barrett 2015

Barrett (2015). Atlantic Puffin Fratercula arctica chick growth in relation to food load composition. Seabird Journal.

The page saysOften around a dozen, and more is not always better.
The source saysA similar increase (from c. 4 to 12 fish/load) was recorded over the 38-year period at the Isle of May (Harris & Wanless 2011), and at Røst numbers of prey items were generally high with means of 10–11 in years of good breeding success and 15–20 in poor yearsNote: FAQ; 12 at the Isle of May and 10-11 at Røst in good years
The page saysOver 38 years on Scotland's Isle of May, the number of fish per load rose from about 4 to 12, and at Røst in Norway loads averaged 10 to 11 fish in good breeding years and 15 to 20 in poor ones.
The source saysA similar increase (from c. 4 to 12 fish/load) was recorded over the 38-year period at the Isle of May (Harris & Wanless 2011), and at Røst numbers of prey items were generally high with means of 10–11 in years of good breeding success and 15–20 in poor yearsNote: FAQ
The page saysA load of many small fish can be a sign that food near the colony is getting worse.
The source saysdocumented a gradual change in chick diet and signs of a deterioration in feeding conditions through increases in numbers of small fish in beak loadsNote: FAQ; Barrett's summary of the 1980-2000 Hornøya study
The page sayssometimes carries a dozen small fish home in its bill
The source saysA similar increase (from c. 4 to 12 fish/load) was recorded over the 38-year period at the Isle of May (Harris & Wanless 2011), and at Røst numbers of prey items were generally high with means of 10–11 in years of good breeding success and 15–20 in poor yearsNote: tagline; 12 fish a load at the Isle of May, re-pointed from Audubon (#257)
The page saysA parent may fly back to its nest with a dozen small fish
The source saysA similar increase (from c. 4 to 12 fish/load) was recorded over the 38-year period at the Isle of May (Harris & Wanless 2011), and at Røst numbers of prey items were generally high with means of 10–11 in years of good breeding success and 15–20 in poor yearsNote: vibe.reason (#257)
The page saysa parent may fly back to the nest with a dozen small fish held crosswise in its bill
The source saysA similar increase (from c. 4 to 12 fish/load) was recorded over the 38-year period at the Isle of May (Harris & Wanless 2011), and at Røst numbers of prey items were generally high with means of 10–11 in years of good breeding success and 15–20 in poor yearsNote: the dozen; 'crosswise' is the next claim (#257)

Source
09

Spencer

Spencer. Diving Behavior and Identification of Sex of Breeding Atlantic Puffins (Fratercula arctica), and Nest-Site Characteristics of Alcids on Petit Manan Island, Maine. Masters thesis, University of Massachusetts Amherst.

The page saysDepth recorders on 13 adult puffins in Maine logged 8,097 dives
The source saysDive data were successfully retrieved from 5 birds foraging for 14 days in 2008, and 8 birds foraging for 18 days in 2009. Pooling across all birds, a total of 8,097 dives were recordedNote: 5 + 8 = 13 birds; Petit Manan Island, Maine (#185)
The page says86 percent were shallower than 15 meters, and the deepest reached 40.7 meters
The source saysDive depth was less than 15 m for 86% of the dives. Mean maximum dive depth across birds was 9.7 (± 1.7) m, with the deepest dive being 40.7 m.Note: replaces Audubon's 'within 50 ft ... about 200 ft' (#185)
The page saysWhen 13 adult puffins nesting on Petit Manan Island in Maine carried depth recorders
The source sayswe quantified foraging behavior of adult Atlantic puffins (Fratercula arctica) by deploying time-depth recorders (TDRs) on 18 adultsNote: FAQ; recorders went on 18 and returned data from 13 (5 + 8)
The page says86 percent of their 8,097 dives were shallower than 15 meters (50 feet), and the deepest reached 40.7 meters (about 134 feet)
The source saysDive depth was less than 15 m for 86% of the dives. Mean maximum dive depth across birds was 9.7 (± 1.7) m, with the deepest dive being 40.7 m.Note: FAQ; 15 m ≈ 49 ft, 40.7 m ≈ 133.5 ft
The page saysFemales made fewer of the deep dives than males did.
The source saysFemales made fewer deep dives (27-41 m), had more midday dives (1000 - 1559), and their dives were spread across a greater number of bouts per day than males.Note: FAQ
The page says86 percent of their 8,097 dives
The source saysPooling across all birds, a total of 8,097 dives were recordedNote: FAQ

Source
10

GOV.UK

Response to arbitration tribunal final report: UK-Sandeel (The European Union v. the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland). GOV.UK.

The page saysto protect seabirds
The source saysThe decisions were taken to protect vulnerable seabird populations and support the wider marine environment.
The page saysThe EU challenged the ban
The source saysIn April 2024, the EU launched dispute proceedings to challenge the closures.
The page saysafter a 2025 arbitration ruling the UK government said the closures would stay in place
The source saysThe closures will therefore remain in place.Note: page 'Published 2 May 2025' with 'The sandeel Arbitration Tribunal has published its final ruling.' and a 'Further update as of June 25th, 2025' ending in this sentence (#185)

Source
11

All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology

Atlantic Puffin Life History. All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology.

The page saysPuffins eat small fish about 5 to 15 centimeters long, mainly sandeels, sprat, capelin, herring, hake and cod
The source saysAtlantic Puffins eat small fish around 2 to 6 inches long, mainly sandlance (sandeel), sprat, capelin, herring, hake, and cod.Note: 2 to 6 in = 5.1 to 15.2 cm; replaces Audubon's chick-diet list (#257)
The page saysSmall fish about 5 to 15 cm long, mainly sandeels, sprat, capelin, herring, hake and cod
The source saysAtlantic Puffins eat small fish around 2 to 6 inches long, mainly sandlance (sandeel), sprat, capelin, herring, hake, and cod.Note: stats.diet; 2 to 6 in = 5.1 to 15.2 cm (#257)
The page saysBurrows and rock crevices on sea islands
The source saysAtlantic Puffins nest in burrows on rocky islands with short vegetation, and on sea cliffs. ... nests are placed in crevices or beneath boulders.Note: stats.habitat, re-pointed from Audubon (#257)
The page saysat sea the rest of the year
The source saysThey spend the rest of the year at sea.Note: stats.habitat; replaces Audubon's 'usually well offshore' (#257)
The page saysPuffins breed in colonies, in burrows or among rocks on sea islands
The source saysAtlantic Puffins nest in colonies on small islands covered in short vegetation ... On rocky islands they make a nest under a boulder or within a crevice among the rocks.Note: re-pointed from Audubon (#257)
The page saysSociable at its colonies, the puffin often feeds alone or with one other bird in winter
The source saysin the winter they are less social often foraging singly or with another individual. At the breeding colonies they are social birdsNote: re-pointed from Audubon (#257)
The page saysout on the open ocean
The source saysAtlantic Puffins spend most of their life on the open ocean, coming ashore only to breed.Note: (#257)

Source
12

Hinterland Who's Who

Atlantic Puffin. Hinterland Who's Who.

The page saysheld crosswise in its bill
The source saysAdults hold fish crossways in their bills while carrying food back to their chicks.Note: replaces Audubon's 'lined up'; All About Birds agrees, hedged: 'often capture several fish during one dive, holding them crosswise in their bill' (#257)
The page saysBackward-pointing spines on its tongue and the roof of its mouth hold the catch in place while it grabs more
The source saysa series of backward-pointing spines project from the tongue and top of mouth and hold the food in place while more is being caught.Note: (#257)
The page saysBoth parents feed the chick
The source saysThen it is left alone most of the time in the safety of the burrow while both parents come and go, bringing it food.Note: re-pointed from Audubon; ADW's 'the female puffin will go out to catch food' disagrees and is student-written (#257)
The page sayscarrying fish in their bills
The source saysAdults hold fish crossways in their bills while carrying food back to their chicks.Note: (#257)
The page saysAfter the breeding season, a puffin sheds the colorful plates on its bill and around its eyes
The source saysAfter the breeding season, the adult puffin sheds the colourful plates on its bill and around the eyesNote: replaces Audubon's 'somewhat smaller and less colorful' (#257)
The page saysAfter the breeding season, an Atlantic puffin sheds the colorful plates on its bill and around its eyes, along with the feathers on its head and neck, and its face turns dark.
The source saysAfter the breeding season, the adult puffin sheds the colourful plates on its bill and around the eyes as well as the feathers on its head and neck. Its face becomes dark, especially around and in front of the eye.Note: FAQ (#257)
The page saysIt looks so different in winter that people once thought it was a different species.
The source saysThe Atlantic Puffin looks so different in the winter that people once thought it was a different species.Note: FAQ (#257)
The page saysA puffin usually lays a single egg
The source saysthe female puffin lays a single eggNote: 'usually' from BTO nest records: typical clutch 1, observed 1-2 (#257)
The page sayswhitish at first but quickly stained brown with dirt and mud
The source saysThe egg is whitish at first with faint blotches, but quickly becomes stained brown with dirt and mud.Note: replaces Audubon's 'white' (#257)
The page saysMost chicks leave at night
The source saysMost chicks fledge under the cover of night and are at sea, far from the colony, by morning.Note: replaces Audubon's 'usually leaving at night and flying directly out to sea' (#257)
The page saysby morning are at sea, far from the colony
The source saysMost chicks fledge under the cover of night and are at sea, far from the colony, by morning.Note: (#257)

How the table was made: a writer drafted the profile from these sources and logged each claim with its quote, a reviewer with nothing but this table checked every sentence said no more than its quote, and a script confirmed each quote appears word for word in the source. The method is in the site'sAbout page.